Veterinary Medicine – Open Journal (VMOJ)
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Recently Published Articles
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Sero-Prevalence and Risk Factors for Infectious Bursal Disease in Local Chicken on Backyard Production System in Selected Districts of Ilubabor Zone, South Western Ethiopia
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596.59 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Review of Diagnostic and Vaccination Approaches of Infectious Bursal Disease of Poultry
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472.95 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Effect of Breed and Risk Factors Affecting Conception Rate to Artificial Insemination in Dairy Cows of Tullo District Western Haraghe, Ethiopia
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393.87 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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A Case Report on Surgical Management of Dystocia in Heifers Due to Narrow Pelvis and Immaturity
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671.57 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Prevalence and Public Health importance of Bovine Cysticercosis in Haramaya Municipal Abattoir, East Hararghe Zone of Oromia Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia
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449.71 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Colotomy to Resolve Constipation Secondary to Spinal Cord Injury: A Case Report
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410.75 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Study on the Prevalence and Estimation of Monetary Loss of Hydatidosis in Cattle Slaughtered at Bedeno Municipal Abattoir, East Hararghe, Ethiopia
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413.85 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Coprological Prevalence and Associated Risk Factor of Bovine Fasciolosis Around Furda Veterinary Clinic, East Hararghe, Ethiopia
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393.99 KB Full-Text (HTML)
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Host Related Risk Factors of Bovine Trypanosomosis and Vector Density in Halu District of Ilubabor Zone, West Ethiopia
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Study on Prevalence of Major Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Sheep in Wayu Tuka and Diga District, Oromia Regional State
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Assessment of the Reasons for Culling and its Relation to Age at Culling in Dairy Cows in and around Mekelle City, Tigray, Ethiopia
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Prevalence and Economic Significance of Hydatidosis on Cattle Slaughtered at Nekemte Municipal Abattoir, Western Ethiopia
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Umbilical Hernia in Cross Holstein Friesian Calf and its Surgical Management: A Case Report
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Assessment of Socio-economic Importance and Major Constraints of Working Equines in and around Debre Berhan Town, Central Ethiopia
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Cosmetic Tail Docking – An Option for Severely Injured Tail in Dog: A Case Report
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Successful Therapautic Management of Ivermectin Toxicity in American Pitbull Terrier
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Recurrent Prepartum Cervico-Vaginal Prolapse in a Crossbred Holstein Friesian Dairy Cow
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Assessment of Welfare Problems on Working Donkeys in Hosaena District, Hadiya Zone, Southern Ethiopia
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Review on Epidemiology and Economic Impact of Small Ruminant Brucellosis in Ethiopian Perspective
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Medicinal Value of Croton macrostachyus and Solanum incanum against Causative Agent of Foodborne Diseases
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Unilateral Surgical Amputation of Horn Due to Suppurative Sinusitis in Cow
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Prevalence of Major Gastrointestinal Tract Parasite of Cattle at Municipal Abattoir of Jimma Town, Oromia, South Western Ethiopia
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Canine Urolithiasis and Concurrent Urinary Bladder Abnormalities: Symptoms, Haematology, Urinalysis and Comparative Radiographic and Ultrasonographic Diagnosis
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Overview of Methods Used in the Diagnosis of Infectious Bursal Disease
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Survival Rate of Calves and Assessment Reproductive Performance of Heifers and Cows in Dida Tuyura Ranch, Borana Zone, Southern Ethiopia
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Review on Dissociative Anaesthetics and Compatible Drug Combinations in Veterinary Clinical Practice
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Effect of Non-Genetic Factors on Pooled Productive and Reproductive Traits in Sahiwal Cattle
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Determination of Ovarian Cysts in Cattle with Poor Reproductive Performance Using Ultrasound and Plasma Progesterone Profile
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Advances in Synbiotic Therapy in the Management of Gastrointestinal Diseases (Enteric Diseases) in Farm Animals
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Megaesophagus in Littermates Dogo Argentino Accompanied With Hypothyroidism
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Prevalence and Identification of Bovine Ixodid Ticks in Horo Guduru Animal Breeding and Research Center, Horo Guduru Wollega Zone, Western Ethiopia
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Correlates of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)-Like Behavior in Domestic Dogs: First Results from a Questionnaire-Based Study
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Influence of Body Size on Blood Hemogram in Rainbow Trout Oncorhynchus Mykiss (Walbaum, 1792)
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Canine Prostatic Disorders
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Study on Reproductive Performance of Breeding Sows and Ultrasound Monitoring of Ovarian Follicle Activity and Ovulation of Post-Weaning Sows in a Commercial Pig Farm of Central Ethiopia
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Endoscopic Evidences of Upper Respiratory Tract Disorders in Horses and Donkeys
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Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin Treatment for Sexual Immaturity in a Male Ibex (Capra Pyrenaica)
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Assessment of Ageing-Dependent Effects on Sperm Functions following Semen Cryopreservation
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Epidemiological Study of Rabies from 2001-2016 in Grenada, West Indies
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Evaluation of Total Intravenous Anesthesia by Ketamine-Xylazine Constant Rate Infusion in Dogs: A Novel Preliminary Dose Study
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The Social Behaviour of Neutered Male Dogs Compared to Intact Dogs (Canis Lupus Familiaris): Video Analyses, Questionnaires and Case Studies
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MR Signal Changes of Trigeminal Nuclei in a Case of Suspected Idiopathic Trigeminal Neuropathy in a Staffordshire Bull Terrier
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Hazard Assessments of Cattle Fascioliasis With Special Reference to Hemato-Biochemical Biomarkers
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Update on Urinary Tract Infections in Dogs in a Tropical Island and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Escherichia Coli Isolates for the Period 2010-2016
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Efficacy of Natural Herbal Formulation against Acute Hepatopancreatic Necrosis Disease (AHPND) causing Vibrio parahaemolyticus in Penaeus vannamei
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Comparative Study of Different Sire Evaluation Methods Using First Lactation Traits in Crossbred Cattle
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Therapy Potential of Tailless Bacteriophage ΦHN161 and its Ability in Modulating Inflammation Caused by Bacterial Disease
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New Therapeutic Strategies to Control and Treatment of Bovine Mastitis
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Incidence of Mycotoxins (AFB1 and AFM1) in Feeds and Dairy Farms from Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil
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Seroprevalence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Infection and Associated Risk Factors in Cattle in Selangor, Malaysia
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Idiopathic Eosinophilic Pneumonia with Associated Pulmonary Vasculitis in Horse: A Case Series
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Impact of Autonomic Tonus Typological Features on the Duodenum Structure of Chickens
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Identification of Ostriches (Struthio camelus) Gastrointestinal Bacterial Flora and Characterization of the Antibiotic Resistance Profile of Salmonella Serovars Isolated from North-West of Iran
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About the Journal
Veterinary Medicine – Open Journal (VMOJ) is an online open access domain which covers all aspects of animal husbandry and veterinary well being in all spheres of animal domestication.
Veterinary Medicine can be defined as a branch of science that deals with the identification, prevention and isolation of diseases, conditions, and disorders in animal species (Both domesticated and wild).
Openventio dedicates itself to highlight all the matters related to Veterinary Medicine and to bring information from all the authors and diverse sources in a uniform way through our well-designed open access portal.
Aims and Scope
Veterinary Medicine – Open Journal aims to create awareness and discuss issues pertaining to Veterinary Medicine and its co-relation with medicinal sciences, community, and interdependencies among each other.
VMOJ covers a wide array of subjects as given below:
- Veterinary Biochemistry
- Animal Husbandry
- Veterinary Parasitology
- Animal Genetics
- Veterinary Microbiology
- Wildlife
- Meat Science and Technology
- Poultry science
- Diary Science
- Animal Nutrition
- Veterinary Surgery and Radiology
- Animal Genetics and Breeding
Submissions for this journal are accepted from all practitioners and students of veterinary medicine, from experts in the field to novices who are just beginning their journey in veterinary medicine.
The audience of VMOJ includes doctors, nurses, research assistants, local community practitioners, government bodies such as departments of animal husbandry and students of various universities and general communities from different parts of the world.
The journal welcomes all types of articles such as original research, review, case-report, mini-review, editorial, short-communication, book review, opinion, commentary, letter to the editor, conference proceedings, technical report, errata, illustrations, etc.
We are open to receive comments and corrections from experts in the field to improve the quality of our journal.
Article in press
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Sero-Prevalence and Risk Factors for Infectious Bursal Disease in Local Chicken on Backyard Production System in Selected Districts of Ilubabor Zone, South Western Ethiopia
Provisional PDF
596.59 KB Full-Text (HTML)
Abstract [+]
Introduction
Gumboro is an acute, highly contagious, and immunosuppressive viral disease of young chickens less than 17-weeks. However, in local chicken flocks of Ilubabor, there is no known sero-status of the disease.
Methods
To address this information gap, a cross-sectional study was conducted in local backyard chicken flocks of three districts of Ilubabor Zone where chick mortality and morbidity were a big problem. The objectives of the study were to estimate the seroprevalence of infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) and to assess its risk factors.
Result
Out of 418 serum samples tested, 180 were positive and the overall chicken level seroprevalence of the IBDV antibody in the study area was found to be 43.10% (95% CI: 38.40-47.85) and flock-level seroprevalence was 45.63% (73/160) (95%CI: 37.91-53.34) with almost all test positive flock chickens were seropositive. Multivariable analysis at chicken level showed that the odds of IBDV seroprevalence was significantly high in Metu and Bilo Nopa districts, in purchased, in female and adult chickens. Also, it was high at flock level in chickens mixed with exotic breeds, in flocks having greater than 5 chickens.
Conclusion
This study shows that IBDV is circulating in the chicken population of Ilubabor at a high prevalence level. Therefore, further studies on serotypes and strains of IBDV identification should be carried out to design suitable control and prevention measures.
Keywords
Cross-sectional; Ethiopia; Backyard chickens; IBDV; Risk factors; Seroprevalence.
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Surgical Management of Dystocia in Local Breed Sheep: A Case Series
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Abstract [+]
Dystocia means difficulty in parturition to the point of needing human intervention and it is a major cause of lamb loss in the flock and may result in great economic loss to the farmers. Two local breed adult ewes of different age and causes of dystocia were presented to Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) with the history of full-term gestation and three-month gestation in case 1 and 2, respectively. Clinical and physical examination finding revealed that there were weak and unable to stand, and straining in case 1 and anorexia, lethargy, recumbent with attempt to stand, abdominal distension and granting sound in case 2. Live fetus in case 1 and died fetus in case 2 was dictated up on abdominal palpation and ultrasonography findings. Vaginal examination also has undergone and revealed that incomplete dilation of cervix in case 1. Depending on diagnostic finding caesarian section were admitted and a single live fetus and a twin died fetuses were removed from case 1 and 2, respectively under line infiltration anaesthesia in case 1 and inverted “L” blocks in case 2. Following the successful caesarian section the dam of case 1 was died after 18-hours of post-surgery but the dam of case 2 was recovered uneventfully without any complications in period of 15 post-operative days.
Keywords
Caesarian section; Dystocia; Ewes.
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En Bloc Excisions of Chronic Abscesses in Bull: A Case Report
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Abstract [+]
Introduction
An abscess is the most common swelling observed on the skin surface of the animal body with a collection of pus due to microbial invasion of the dermis and its supporting structures.
Case Description
In the present case, nine-years old male Zebu cattle were presented to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH) with a history of swelling on the cheek. Clinical findings of the mass revealed that there was well-circumscribed, firm, movable cold, and not painful superficial skin swelling on the body of the mandible and check. Culturing on blood agar and gram staining was conducted and then, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis was isolated from the sample. Following clinical and laboratory finding the case was diagnosed as caseous lymphadenitis and En bloc excision of the case was performed under local infiltration of anesthesia.
Conclusion
The suture was removed after 15-days post-intervention and the bull was successfully recovered without any other complications. Therefore, management of well-circumscribed, firm, and movable superficial skin abscess in cattle through en bloc excision along with antibacterial therapy and allowing the skin wound to heal by the first intention should be effective.
Keywords
Abscess; Bull; Caseous lymphadenitis; En bloc excision.
Current Issue
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Colotomy to Resolve Constipation Secondary to Spinal Cord Injury: A Case Report
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Abstract [+]
Urinary and bowel dysfunction is a condition that encompasses loss of bladder and bowel control which is characterized by partial or complete loss of defecation and urination. Urinary and bowel dysfunction is multifactorial and mainly caused by spinal cord injury at the lumbosacral level or more cranial. The present case report was aimed to show techniques and outcomes of colotomy to resolve constipation secondary to bowel dysfunction in a cat. A 1-year-old female cat weighing 1.3 kg was presented to Veterinary Teaching Hospital with a history of anorexia dullness, abdominal distension, and absence of defecation for the last 8-days. Clinical examination revealed stunted growth, poor body condition, very weak anal and pedal reflex, distended abdomen, dehydration, and lateral recumbency. Based on the history and clinical findings the case was diagnosed as constipation and exploratory laparotomy was indicated after sufficient stabilization. The caudal ventral midline was used to perform colotomy to remove accumulated feces. Post-operatively fluid therapy, antibiotics, laxative, and vitamins were administered accordingly. Upon 52-days follow-up; the patient was able to pass her feces completely, while urine retention and incontinence remains unresolved. Therefore, the owner was advised how to apply gentle external compression of the bladder to assist urination.
Keywords
Cat; Colotomy; Constipation; Incontinence.
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Prevalence and Public Health importance of Bovine Cysticercosis in Haramaya Municipal Abattoir, East Hararghe Zone of Oromia Regional State, Eastern Ethiopia
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Abstract [+]
Aim
This study was conducted by using the protocols of post-mortem examinations of meat (visual inspection) to determine the prevalence of bovine cysticercosis in the cattle slaughtered at Haramaya Municipal Abattoir, Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia and to determine zoonotic significance of taeniasis.
Method
A cross-section study design was conducted from November 2020 to March 2021, based on routine meat inspection on simple randomly selected cattle slaughtered at the abattoir. Visual inspection of all exposed surface was made in all active organs. They are shoulder muscles, hearts, masseters (cheek muscle), diaphragms, tongues and livers. This is followed by incision of all those organs to be examined for Cysticercus bovis cysts.
Results
Twenty-one (21) of the 384 cattle examined utilizing the post-mortem examinations meat inspection methodology were positive for C. bovis, resulting in a prevalence of 5.5 %. The masseter muscle (11.5 %) had the highest prevalence of cysts, followed by the triceps (8.3%), heart (5.8%), liver (4.8 %), and tongue (2.9 %). The sex-based prevalence rates were 10 (3.4%) and 11 (12.1%), respectively. The predominance of bodily condition was found to be good (1.3%), medium (11.1%), and bad (50 %). The prevalence male and female e differed substantially by organ, sex, and bodily condition (p>0.05), but not statistically significant by age of the animals (young 2.8% vs. adult 6.1%) (p>0.05). Eight (20%) of the total 40 interviewees had contracted Taenia saginata infection at least once in their lives. Religion showed a significant difference (p>0.05) (Christian 66.7% and Muslim 6.5%). However, there was no statistically significant difference in meat consumption habits (raw 31.6% vs. cooked 9.5%), sex (male 26.5% vs. female 11.8%), age (young 33.3% vs. adult 17.7%), educational status (illiterate 22.2% vs. elementary 14.3% vs. high school 27.3% vs. college 16.7%) or latrine use (proper users 19.4% and non-proper users 25%).
Conclusion
This study to increasing public awareness of the disease, as well as strict routine meat inspections, should be prioritized in order to decrease the parasite’s impact.
Keywords
Bovine, Cysticercus bovis; Haramaya Municipal Abattoir; Prevalence; Public health.
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A Case Report on Surgical Management of Dystocia in Heifers Due to Narrow Pelvis and Immaturity
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Abstract [+]
Narrow pelvis is characterized as an insufficient maternal bony pelvis that does not allow for fetal transit due to a variety of factors. Animal immaturity is one of these reasons. This communication was written with the goal of documenting surgical management of dystocia and its impact on a two-year-old heifer who was with a full-term pregnancy. A vaginal delivery was tried but failed due to the narrow maternal pelvis. To avoid any post-operative problems, the surgical management was carried out under strict aseptically. A volume of 30 ml 2% Lidocaine Hydrochloride was infiltrated on left flank with inverted L-block techniques. While the cow was on her right lateral recumbency. The uterus was emptied of a deceased fetus but fetal membrane with the intact umbilical cord was returned back to the womb. Suturing was done using standard surgical procedures, and post-surgical care was followed-up for ten-days. The heifer was successfully rehabilitated.
Keywords
Dystocia; Heifer; Immaturity; Narrow pelvis; Surgical management.
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Effect of Breed and Risk Factors Affecting Conception Rate to Artificial Insemination in Dairy Cows of Tullo District Western Haraghe, Ethiopia
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Abstract [+]
Aim
This study was conducted using the questionnaire method to assess the effect of breed and factors affecting conception rate on artificial insemination in dairy cows in Tullo district, Western Haraghe, Ethiopia.
Methods
A follow-up study design was conducted from December 2018 to June 2019 to determine the effect of breed and factors affecting conception rate to artificial insemination in dairy cows, taking breed, age, parity, body condition and timing of insemination as risk factors. The demographic factors were recorded by interviewing the owners. Most of the cows were examined for pregnancy diagnosis by rectal palpation of the genital tract at 60-80-days post-artificial insemination.
Results
Out of 114 artificially inseminated cows/heifers, 59 became pregnant, giving an overall first service conception rate of 51.8%. Although the breed, age, parity and body condition score did not affect the conception rate significantly, the pregnancy rate was better in the cross-breed (62.5%), in cows of 5-7-years of age (54.6%), in cows of parity 2-3 (59.2%) and in cows of good body condition score (57.7%). The conception rate in cows inseminated at 12-18-hours after the onset of estrus was significantly higher (62.3%) than those inseminated after 18-hours (31.2%) and before 12-hours (52.4%) after the onset of estrus. Therefore, cows with good body condition score (BCS) and artificial insemination (AI) service at 12-18-hours after the onset of estrus are the best choice of selection for obtaining the best result in the first service conception rate to AI in dairy cows/heifers.
Conclusion
This study reveals that the conception rate was influenced by the time of AI, so awareness should be given to cattle owners, as they should give AI for their cattle at optimum time within 12-18-hours after onset of heat sign.
Keywords
Artificial insemination, breed, conception rate, Tullo district.
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Review of Diagnostic and Vaccination Approaches of Infectious Bursal Disease of Poultry
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Abstract [+]
Infectious bursal disease, also known as Gumboro disease, is a highly contagious and acute viral disease of poultry characterised by the destruction of lymphoid cells. Diagnosis of infectious bursal disease involves consideration of the flocks’ history, clinical signs, and lesions. The objectives of this paper are to highlight various commonly used diagnostic methods for infectious bursal disease and to review advances made in diagnostic methods and vaccination strategies for infectious bursal disease, with special emphasis on the strengths and weaknesses of each of those techniques. Isolation of infectious bursal disease virus followed by its serological assay and histopathological examination of the bursa is regarded as the gold standard method of infectious bursal disease diagnosis. Serological tests such as agar gel, immune diffusion, enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay, and viral neutralisation tests are commonly used laboratory assays in diagnosing infectious bursal disease viruses. Recently, the most accurate and relatively fast diagnostic method, the molecular technique, is widely used. The molecular diagnostic technique is the simplest and most sensitive of the diagnostic techniques reviewed. The virus causes immunosuppression, so the infected chicken recovers from the acute disease but becomes more susceptible to infections by other pathogens. Therefore, prevention is important and vaccination has become the principal control measure of infectious bursal disease virus infection in chickens. Conventional attenuated live and killed vaccines are the most commonly used vaccines. With the advancement of knowledge and technology, new generation or genetically-engineered vaccines like deoxyribonucleic acid and subunit vaccines have been used. Various vaccination strategies, such as in ovo, at hatch, and post hatch vaccination, are used. Hatchery vaccination is becoming a common practice. Based on this review paper, more affordable and effective infectious bursal disease vaccines that are affordable and readily available must be identified with further cost-benefit analysis.
Keywords
Infectious bursal disease; Infectious bursal disease virus; Diagnosis; Vaccine; Vaccination.
Previous Issue
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Coprological Prevalence and Associated Risk Factor of Bovine Fasciolosis Around Furda Veterinary Clinic, East Hararghe, Ethiopia
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393.99 KB Full-Text (HTML)
Abstract [+]
Aim
This study was conducted using the sedimentation method to assess the prevalence and associated risk factors of bovine fasciolosis around Furda Veterinary Clinic, East Hararghe, Ethiopia.
Method
A cross-sectional study design was conducted from October 2020 up to June 2021 to know the prevalence and its associated risk factors of bovine Fasciolosis, taking animal origin, sex, age and body condition as risk factors and standard deviation. The sedimentation technique was used for the recovery of fasciola eggs from fresh fecal.
Results
From a total of 384 animals selected randomly and coprologically examined, 117 of them contained fasciola eggs with a 30.5% total prevalence in the study area. The prevalence of bovine fasciolosis on the basis of animal origin was highest in Gorowodo 23 (28.7%), followed by Dada 24 (30.4%), Harawa 15 (20.5), Rasa Janata 25 (33.8%), and Tirtiro 30 (38.5%). Based on the sexes of animals, the prevalence rate of 74 (32.7%) in females and 43 (27.2%) in males were obtained. While animals of different ages were recorded at 43 (29.9%) and 74 (30.8%), respectively. Whereas 44 (33.6%), 45 (28.8%), and 28 (28.9%) were found to be in poor, moderate, and good physical condition, respectively. All of the risk factors investigated (animal origin, sex, age, and body conditions) were found to be non-significantly associated with the prevalence of bovine fasciolosis (p>0.05).
Conclusion
This study reveals that bovine fasciolosis was a highly prevalent disease in the study area and needs immediate control and prevention by the animal health office and veterinarians working together, treating cattle with anthelmintics before and after the rainy season, and increasing owner awareness about the disease.
Keywords
Coprology; Bovine; Bedeno district; Furda veterinary clinic; Prevalence; Fasciolosis; Risk factors.
Study on the Prevalence and Estimation of Monetary Loss of Hydatidosis in Cattle Slaughtered at Bedeno Municipal Abattoir, East Hararghe, Ethiopia
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Abstract [+]
Aim
This study was conducted by using the protocols of standard meat inspection (visual, palpation and incision) to assess the prevalence and associated risk factors and to estimate the economic loss in cattle slaughtered at Bedeno Municipal Abattoir, Eastern Hararghe, Ethiopia.
Method
A cross-section study design was conducted from February 2020 to November 2020, to determine the prevalence and its associated risk factors of bovine hydatidosis is taking animal origin, sex and age and body condition as risk factors.
Results
From A total of 355 cattle examined using the protocol of standard meat inspection, 99(27.8%) of them are found positive to hydatid cysts. The prevalence of cattle hydatidosis based on animal origin was highest in older cattle 89(29.47%) than young 10(18.89%). Regarding body condition, score to significance variation was observed, as the prevalence was 41.89% for poor cattle followed by medium 24.07% and good 24.37%. Of the total 99 infected, 41(11.55%) of animals were infected in their lungs with only hydatid cysts and 24(6.76%) were infected in their liver, but the rest animals had multiple organ infections, 34(9.58%). Considering the current result, the total annual economic loss from organ condemnation and carcass weight loss due to bovine hydatidosis at Bedeno Municipal Abattoir was estimated at 6,671,803.8 Ethiopian birr (ETB).
Conclusion
This study reveals that cattle hydatidosis was a high prevalence diseases in the study area and needs paucity of information on control and prevention. The cattle owners to be educated and awareness programmes to be conducted about the diseases.
Keywords
Municipal; Hydatidosis; Prevalence; Bovine; Abattoir, Bedeno.
Review on Leptospirosis and its Public Health Significance
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Abstract [+]
Leptospirosis is the most widespread and most prevalent zoonotic disease caused by Leptospira bacteria this is pathogenic Gramnegative bacteria, the disease leptospirosis a zoonotic disease of global importance. It caused by various serovars of leptospira interrogans that belong to the genus Leptospira. Besides leptospira interrogans is the most serovars like the disease occurs in nearly all mammalian species. The highest burden in low-income both found in urban and in rural environments. Rodents are known as the main reservoir animals, However, all animals are reservoir include human so leptospirosis is more common in the tropical regions rather than subtropics because of the longer survival of the organism in the environment and frequent exposure of animals and humans to contaminated environments. Direct transmission to humans by broken skin and mucous membranes exposed to the urine of infected animals. While the clinical signs of leptospirosis do not vary greatly with the species of animals include laboratory tests. Control and prevention is sanitary measures, vaccination, quarantine and rodent control are the most important control measures of the disease, require elimination of the carrier state, maintenance of environmental condition and immunization of the animal, tropical areas where warm humid conditions and alkaline or neutral soil helps leptospira survive better.
Keywords
Leptospirosis; Zoonosis; Leptospira; Rodent.
